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What are robots?

Robots take many forms, from arm-like structures seen in factory assembly lines to humanoids built to resemble the human form. Generally, robots have sensors that allow them to perceive their environment, actuators that enable independent movement, and a program that translates sensor information into actions, such as sound or movement. This autonomous ability differentiates robots from other machines. For clarity, robotics is the field of study, design or engineering of robots.

Robots like Roomba and Alexa have become integral parts of our everyday lives and homes. Two weeks ago, robots even competed against humans in the first-ever humanoid half marathon in Beijing (humans still have the upper hand for now). And robots in various forms are revolutionising healthcare systems all over the world, creating new opportunities and regulatory challenges, to ensure innovation and patient safety are safeguarded.

In this article we look at how robots and robotics are currently being used in healthcare settings, and legal issues arising from their use.

Adoption of robotics in healthcare

Robotics have been used in healthcare for longer than you may think. The first documented use was in Vancouver in 1983, where a robot repositioned a patient’s leg on voice commands from the orthopaedic surgeon. Support for robots in surgical contexts is relatively uncontroversial, as they increase precision, reduce errors, and improve patient outcomes. Robots don’t have hands which shake or get fatigued after hours in theatre. Patients which undergo robotic surgery report reduced pain and scarring compared to traditional surgery. Indeed, in April 2025, NICE reported that 11 new orthopaedic and soft tissue robotic procedures have been approved and are being piloted with NHS patients in the UK.

Another potential use for robots is in dispensing medications. An estimated 237 million medication errors occur in the NHS in England every year and robotics are now being used in pharmacy settings to assist with dispensing medications as a means of reducing (or even eliminating) errors. At the Seventh People’s Hospital in Shanghai, for example, robots run 24 hours a day dispensing drugs in the hospital pharmacy, drastically reducing medication errors and increasing efficiency. 

And in London, Harley Street-based Pharmacierge uses a robot to dispense drugs between floors. Edward Ungar, Co-founder of Pharmacierge explains:

"At Pharmacierge, managing 6,000–7,000 medication SKUs [stock keeping units] manually would have made further scaling impossible. Our 30-foot multi-arm robot wasn’t introduced to replace people — it was a response to the limits of human cognition in tracking, scanning and optimising such complexity. Its machine learning capabilities assess every variable of each drug in real time, from expiry to pack dimensions, and determine its optimal location within 2,000ft of shelving. Robotics hasn't displaced our employees; it's freed them up to do more technically demanding and satisfying work, which in turn reduces risk." 

In a different use, US companies like Xenex provide robots that sterilize clinical environments to a much higher standard than traditional manual disinfection. Other companies, such as Aethon, produce robots that perform low-skilled tasks like transporting laboratory samples, linens, and waste around the hospital, allowing staff to redirect their time to patient care.

Integrating humanoid robots in healthcare

In some healthcare settings, humanoid robots are used to care directly for patients. Japan faces a shortage of care staff to look after its aging population. The robot ‘Nurse Bear,’ created by Riken and Sumitomo Riko Labs in Japan, can transfer, lift, and reposition patients with restricted mobility. One obvious challenge for caregiving robots is providing empathy and compassionate care, which is often the most impactful aspect of patient experience. Humanoid robot ‘Pepper,’ described by its makers Softbank Robotics as ‘outgoing and charming,’ assists in hospitals by welcoming patients, giving directions, and answering basic questions. It is specifically designed to be a calming presence in anxiety-inducing environments such as hospitals. In Sweden, Pepper provided a fun distraction for paediatric cancer patients, whereas French hospitals used Pepper to allow quarantined COVID-19 patients to video chat with their relatives and in Germany, Pepper is used to chat with Alzheimer’s patients.

Regulating Robots

Where robots interact with humans, especially within the sensitivities and complexities of the healthcare sector, the use of robotics must be regulated in order to protect patients from harm. There is no specific ‘robot law’ governing the design, market, and use of robotics. 

In the UK, the legal framework used to regulate robots is based on existing laws which regulate data protection compliance and medical device regulation. There are also more subtle mechanisms of regulation such as the code or ‘architecture’ which define what the robots themselves can and cannot do thereby ensuring compliance with social norms. 

Surgical robots which are classified as medical devices are relatively straightforward to regulate, as they are treated similarly to scalpels or staples. However, regulating humanoid robots with a higher degree of interaction with patients, such as Pepper or Nurse Bear, is more complex. Their roles involve processing personal health data and prompting emotional responses from humans. The first consideration should be around the use and protection of data received by the robot to ensure compliance with data protection, especially given the sensitive nature of health data. 

Patient autonomy must also be protected to ensure there is no undue influence from the robot. How does a robot that prompts medication intake or certain actions ensure that the patient can ultimately make their own choice? Article 22 of the UK GDPR gives data subjects the right not to be subjected to decisions based solely on automated processing where the decision produces legal effects or similarly affects them.

A care robot that prompts an elderly patient to take medication could circumvent Article 22 by requiring consent from the patient and recording the patient’s decision, which can be written into the robot’s architecture. Similarly, issues around data retention can be addressed by ensuring the robot’s programme deletes data after analysis or actions are completed. 

Robots are likely to have a greater emotional impact on humans, especially vulnerable patients. Social and legal norms can also be written into a robot’s code to ensure the robot’s behaviour remains in line with what is generally deemed acceptable by the community in which it operates. 

Liability law drives public confidence and investment by pushing manufacturers to design safer robots and ensuring any failure on the part of the robot which causes a loss is appropriately compensated by the manufacturer. There is tension between promoting safety and not stifling innovation. The balance struck will be specific to the market in which the robot is sold. For example, Japan’s urgent need for care assistance, combined with its culture of embracing automation, will likely drive innovation. In contrast, the European market, which is more safety-conscious and influenced by a Western culture that tends to be more cautious about robots, may slow the development and integration of robotics.

What’s next?

The application of robotics in healthcare promises increased efficiency, reliability, and consistency. Robots don’t take holidays, get sick, strike, or need rest. Although the initial investment required to implement a robotics program is significant, efficiency and productivity should offset this by providing long-term cost-saving solutions. While there will be challenges in regulating robots, as with any fast-paced areas of emerging technology, a multi-faceted approach to regulation is necessary. This must ensure patient safety whilst promoting innovation and efficiency in an increasingly pressured healthcare environment.

How our team can support you

Hill Dickinson recently hosted the 9th STIQ Robotics and Automation Networking Event, part of a series of informal networking events focusing on the robotics industry, from warehouse automation to humanoids to industrial robots. These STIQ events are one of the most prominent robotics meetups in the UK, with attendees from all sectors, including robotics businesses themselves (both emerging and those who have already been round the block!) and investors. At a time when the pace of technological development is faster than ever in history, such events offer a crucial means of staying up to date with developments and meeting those who are at the forefront of the sector. 

Please get in touch if you are interested in attending one of these events or if you have any legal issues in relation to robotics which we can help with. 

For more information, please refer to our Robotics brochure.